How should a consul answer a conspiracy against the republic?

Translation: quotations from Cicero are quoted in E. O. Winstedt's 1912-18 English translation (Loeb); quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation; quoted in Melmoth's 1753 and Shuckburgh's 1899 English translations, not his original words.

1. WHAT HE SAID (the record)

Record ledger

• BELIEF (undated; quoted in E. O. Winstedt's 1912-18 English translation (Loeb)): Cicero believed that a consul should not only bring an affair before the House but also make up his own mind before taking the House's opinion. He argued that his merit lay in acting before consulting the House, and that Cato's speech was influential because it clearly and fully summarized the matter. [1]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero argues that a consul should act decisively to defeat a conspiracy, as he did when he defeated Catiline's machinations. He contrasts his actions with those of Piso and Clodius, who, he claims, would have aided Catiline and endangered the republic. "For, what was the difference between Catiline and that man to whom you sold the authority of the senate, the safety of the state, and the whole republic, for the reward of a province?" [2]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero believed that a consul should resist conspiracies against the republic using laws and courts of justice, but if those were ineffective, then by armed guards and troops. This is based on Cicero's praise of Milo for acting in accordance with such sentiments. "that such men's duty was to resist the wickedness of audacious men, men who would overturn the republic, by means of the laws, and of the courts of justice; but that if the laws were inefficient, if there were no courts of justice, if the republic was seized and held in subjection by the violence and conspiracy and armed force of audacious men, then that it was absolutely necessary for our lives and liberties to be defended by armed guards and by troops." [3]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero believed that a consul should act to protect the republic when its bulwarks are undermined, by coming to the country's assistance, bringing succour to its safety, and prioritizing the common safety over personal safety. He argued that such actions are virtuous and necessary. "Wherefore, if it is the part of a virtuous consul when he sees all the bulwarks of the republic undermined and weakened, to come to the assistance of his country; to bring succour to the safety and fortunes of all men; to implore the good faith of the citizens; to think his own safety of secondary consideration when put in competition with the common safety of all;" [4]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero believed that a consul should act decisively to preserve the republic from conspiracy, emphasizing the unity of the Roman people and the necessity of protecting the state's institutions and citizens. He argued that the people must take action to prevent future threats, not just for their own safety but for the preservation of the republic. (key quote above) [5]
• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero, as consul, took action to arrest conspirators and secure the safety of the city and its citizens during a conspiracy against the republic. The passage shows that he invoked divine aid and worked with Lucius Valerius Flaccus, who was then prætor, to address the threat. "On that night... when I, O Flaccus, invoking heaven and night, was with tears entreating your aid, and you in tears were listening to me; when I commended to your honest and well-proved loyalty the safety of the city and of the citizens." [6]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero believed that a consul should be an irreconcilable enemy to a conspiracy against the republic. He argues that Murena, if given another chance, will prove to be such an enemy. (key quote above) [7]
• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero, as consul, acted by waging war against conspirators and giving evidence regarding the conspiracy. The passage shows that he took decisive action to preserve the republic by countenancing Catiline's trial and extinguishing the conspiracy, which he now presents as a basis for his current defense of Sylla. "Do I, who never praised Catiline, who never as consul countenanced Catiline when he was on his trial, who have given evidence respecting the conspiracy against others,—do I seem to you so far removed from sanity..." [8]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero believes that a consul should act decisively against a conspiracy, including executing the conspirators if necessary. He argues that Catiline should have been led to execution by the consul's command. "You ought, O Catiline, long ago to have been led to execution by command of the consul." [9]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero believed that a consul should act decisively to expose and punish conspirators, ensuring that the disease of conspiracy is not merely temporarily relieved but fully eradicated. He argued that the removal of a key conspirator like Catiline would only appear to relieve the danger, but the true solution requires the separation and punishment of all conspirators. (key quote above) [10]

What cuts against it

• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero, in a letter to Atticus, acknowledges that his brother Quintus had changed his feelings and opinions over time, which suggests a potential inconsistency in personal judgment. This could imply that Cicero himself might have shifted in his views or actions over time. [11]

• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero criticizes Piso for condemning the senate for cruelty, implying that Piso would have acted differently in a similar situation. This suggests that Cicero may have acted in a manner that could be seen as inconsistent with his stated beliefs about the actions a consul should take. [2]

• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero praises Milo for using armed guards and troops to defend the republic when laws and courts were ineffective. However, this contrasts with Cicero's own actions, where he primarily used legal and political means to address the conspiracy. [3]

• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero argues that a consul should act to protect the republic when its bulwarks are undermined, but this belief may not have been consistently applied in all situations, as seen in his actions and decisions during the Catiline conspiracy. [4]

2. HOW IT APPLIES (reasoning; inference is marked)

1. Cicero believed that a consul should act decisively to preserve the republic from conspiracy, emphasizing the unity of the Roman people and the necessity of protecting the state's institutions and citizens. [5] (inference)

2. He argued that the people must take action to prevent future threats, not just for their own safety but for the preservation of the republic. [5] (inference)

3. Cicero believed that a consul should be an irreconcilable enemy to a conspiracy against the republic, as demonstrated by his actions against Catiline. [7] (inference)

4. He argued that the removal of a key conspirator like Catiline would only appear to relieve the danger, but the true solution requires the separation and punishment of all conspirators. [10] (inference)

5. Cicero believed that a consul should act decisively to expose and punish conspirators, ensuring that the disease of conspiracy is not merely temporarily relieved but fully eradicated. [10] (inference)

3. HIS TAKE

Record coverage: DIRECT

The record is silent on the specific modern context of a consul answering a conspiracy against the republic, but it provides detailed historical context on how Cicero believed a consul should act.

Extrapolation: Cicero believed that a consul should act decisively and with promptitude to address a conspiracy against the republic. He emphasized the importance of unity among the Roman people and the necessity of protecting the state's institutions and citizens. Cicero also believed that the removal of a key conspirator would only appear to relieve the danger, but the true solution requires the separation and punishment of all conspirators.

Competing readings: One reading is that Cicero's actions were consistent with his stated beliefs about the role of a consul in addressing a conspiracy. Another reading is that his actions may have been influenced by political pressure and the need to maintain public order, which may not have been explicitly stated in the record.

Confidence: High, as the record provides direct evidence of Cicero's beliefs and actions regarding the role of a consul in addressing a conspiracy against the republic.