What is the danger of an aristocracy in a republic?

OCR: 2 cited passage(s) are machine-read (OCR) text of old printings; quotations reproduce the stored OCR text, misreadings included.

1. WHAT HE SAID (the record)

Record ledger

• BELIEF (1777-03-09): John Adams believed that maintaining ranks superior to abler men, which he called a 'putrid Corruption of absolute Monarchy,' is incompatible with republican principles and must be bridled. He argued that such aristocratic tendencies could lead to discontent and that the public good should take precedence over individual honor or glory. "This delicate Point of Honour, which is really one of the most putrid Corruptions of absolute Monarchy, I mean the Honour of maintaining a Rank Superiour to abler Men, I mean the Honour of preserving a single Step of Promotion to the service of the Public, must be bridled. It is incompatible with republican Principles." [1]
• BELIEF (1777-04-13): John Adams believed that men without principle, driven by ambition, pride, and avarice, could become dangerous to a republic, especially if they were part of an aristocracy or elite class. He argued that such individuals, when desperate, might betray their party and people for personal gain, becoming 'the servile Tools of the worst of Men in the Worst of Causes.' "These two Howes were very poor, and they have spent the little Fortunes they had in bribery at Elections, and having obtained Seats in Parliament, and having some Reputation as brave Men, they had nothing to do but to carry their Votes and their Valour to Markett, and it is very true, they have sold them at an high Price." [2]
• BELIEF (undated): John Adams believed that aristocracies in republics were often the result of fraudulent or violent usurpation, rather than being properly established by law or long-standing acceptance, which suggests a danger of illegitimacy and instability in such forms of government. "The government of the grandees, which succeeded, was rather a fraudulent or violent usurpation, than a true and proper aristocracy established by law, or confirmed by long and uncontested possession;" [3]
• BELIEF (undated): John Adams believed that an aristocracy in a republic can become as despotical as a Roman senate and eventually turn into an oligarchy. He argues that a succession of supreme authority in the hands of the people, through their representatives, initially resembles an aristocracy and becomes corrupt more quickly than a hereditary aristocracy. He also claims that such a government introduces vice, profligacy, and corruption with tyranny, unlike hereditary aristocracy, which often preserves the morals of the people. (key quote above) [4]
• BELIEF (1807-08-03): John Adams believed that an aristocracy in a republic could be dangerous because it could oppose the people's interests and leaders, as seen in the Dutch example where the aristocratic party opposed the Stadtholder and took extreme actions against prominent figures like Barneveldt, Grotius, and the De Witts. "It was the people... that Barneveldt was beheaded, Grotius imprisoned and banished to France, and the De Witts massacred." [5]
• BELIEF (1810-12-27): John Adams believed that the danger of an aristocracy in a republic is that aristocrats are always ambitious and avaricious, leading to rivalries among them that split them into factions and tear the people to pieces. He argues that the great secret of liberty is to find means to limit their power and control their passions. "Every Government is an Aristocracy in Fact... The Rivalries among them, split them into Factions and tear the People to Pieces. The great secret of Liberty is to find means to limit their Power and control their Passions." [6]
• BELIEF (1813-03): John Adams believed that aristocracy is the natural enemy of monarchy and that it oppresses the people and the executive until the people give up their freedom to a master. He argues that aristocracy cannot coexist with democracy or monarchy without a balancing power and that it ultimately leads to the destruction of republics. (key quote above) [7]
• BELIEF (undated): John Adams believed that natural aristocracy, based on superior abilities and knowledge, exists and is not destroyed by fluctuations. He argues that knowledge is unchangeable and that the fluctuation of the space between knowledge and ignorance does not negate the existence of aristocracy. "When superior genius gives greater influence in society than is possessed by inferior genius... This cause, you say, is 'fluctuating.' What then? it is aristocracy still, while it exists." [8]
• BELIEF (undated): John Adams believed that aristocracy can arise from various sources, including 'paper wealth,' and that it poses a danger to a republic by uniting democrats and aristocrats in pursuit of monopolies and incorporations, which can ruin those who oppose them. He also believed that certain influential individuals, such as master craftsmen and demagogues, can act as feudal barons or aristocrats, leading mobs and undermining republicanism. "Paper wealth has been a source of aristocracy in this country, as well as landed wealth, with a vengeance... Mobs never follow any but aristocrats." [9]
• BELIEF (undated): John Adams believed that physical, intellectual, and moral inequalities among people naturally lead to a natural aristocracy, which in turn produces inequalities of influence, consideration, and power in society. He argued that these inequalities are the sources of all artificial aristocracies. This suggests that the danger of an aristocracy in a republic may lie in its potential to create or reinforce artificial inequalities of power and influence, which could undermine the principles of equality and fairness in a republic. (key quote above) [10]

What cuts against it

• BELIEF (undated): John Adams believed that inequalities of influence, whether natural or artificial, are a part of human society. He distinguished between natural aristocracy, which arises from human nature, and artificial aristocracy, which is created by civil laws. The passage shows that he acknowledged the existence of natural aristocracy but did not directly address the danger of aristocracy in a republic. "By natural aristocracy, in general, may be understood those superiorities of influence in society which grow out of the constitution of human nature. By artificial aristocracy, those inequalities of weight and superiorities of influence which are created and established by civil laws." [11]

2. HOW IT APPLIES (reasoning; inference is marked)

1. John Adams believed that aristocracy is a natural part of human society, arising from physical, intellectual, and moral inequalities. [10]

2. He argued that these inequalities lead to a natural aristocracy, which can become a source of artificial aristocracy through civil laws. [10]

3. Adams warned that aristocracy in a republic can become as despotical as a Roman senate and eventually turn into an oligarchy. [4]

4. He believed that the great secret of liberty is to find means to limit the power of aristocrats and control their passions. [6]

5. Adams also noted that aristocracy is the natural enemy of monarchy and that it can lead to the destruction of republics by oppressing the people and the executive. [7]

3. HIS TAKE

Record coverage: PARTIAL

The record is silent on the specific dangers of an aristocracy in a modern republic, but it provides insights into the general dangers Adams perceived in historical and theoretical contexts.

Extrapolation: John Adams believed that an aristocracy in a republic poses a danger because it can become despotical, leading to an oligarchy and the oppression of the people. He argued that the natural inequalities among people can lead to the formation of a natural aristocracy, which can then become an artificial aristocracy through civil laws. This aristocracy can undermine the principles of equality and fairness in a republic by creating or reinforcing artificial inequalities of power and influence.

Competing readings: One reading is that Adams saw natural aristocracy as an inevitable and potentially beneficial part of society, while another reading is that he viewed it as a dangerous force that must be controlled to preserve liberty. The record itself supports both readings, as Adams acknowledged the existence of natural aristocracy but also warned of its potential to become corrupt and oppressive.

Confidence: Moderate. The evidence is drawn from a mix of old editions and scholarly transcriptions, and the record supports multiple readings. However, the key themes of aristocratic danger and the need for balance are well-supported by the passages.