What is a commonwealth?

Translation: quotations from Cicero are quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation, not his original words.

1. WHAT HE SAID (the record)

Record ledger

• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that a commonwealth consists in the welfare of the entire people, where 'people' refers to the community bound together by the sense of common rights and mutual benefits. He argues that a commonwealth is the common welfare when it is governed with justice and wisdom, regardless of whether it is ruled by a king, an aristocracy, or a democracy. "He reproduces and enforces the short definition that he had given of a Commonwealth, that it consisted in the welfare of the entire people, by which word 'people' he does not mean the mob, but the community—bound together by the sense of common rights and mutual benefits." [1]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero defines a commonwealth as 'a constitution of the entire people,' where the people are not just any group of individuals but an association bound by justice and utility. He emphasizes that the primary cause of this association is the natural human spirit of sociality. (key quote above) [2]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the noblest use of virtue is the government of the Commonwealth and the realization of patriotic theories. He argues that the principles of virtue, such as piety, religion, justice, and fortitude, are essential to the foundation and governance of a Commonwealth. "Now the noblest use of virtue is the government of the Commonwealth, and the realization of all those patriotic theories which are discussed in the schools." [3]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero, through the character Lælius, denies that a democracy, where the people are all in all, can be called a commonwealth. He argues that a commonwealth must be regulated by a combination of rights and that a democracy is tyrannical and odious because the mob assumes the name and mask of the people. "There is no political constitution to which I more absolutely deny the name of a Commonwealth, than that in which all things lie in the power of the multitude." [4]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the best form of government is a mixed government composed of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, rather than any single form. He also suggests that the true model of a commonwealth is an ideal, proportioned form of government that nature presents, which he is seeking to attain. (key quote above) [5]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero, through Scipio, believes that a commonwealth cannot exist under tyranny or the power of a faction, because there is no universal bond of right or social consent. He argues that such a state is not merely corrupt but not a social constitution at all. (key quote above) [6]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the Roman Commonwealth is based on men and manners, with neither being sufficient without the other. He argues that the Commonwealth's strength and longevity depend on the combination of virtuous individuals and established customs. "Rome's Commonwealth in men and manners stands." [7]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that a commonwealth is a free people governed by laws and constitutional government, as he proposes laws for a free people and refers to the constitutional government he previously set forth and illustrated. "For ourselves, then, as we propose laws for a free people, such as we approved in that best kind of Commonwealth, concerning which we wrote our Six Books, we shall now endeavour to accommodate our laws to that constitutional government we there set forth and illustrated." [8]

What cuts against it

• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero, in defending Lucius Cornelius Balbus, shows political pragmatism by supporting resolutions that prioritize the republic's needs over consistency with past disagreements. "Nor did I think myself bound to preserve a consistency with the previous differences which I had had with him, rather than to consult what was advantageous with regard to the present necessities of the republic and to unanimity." [9]

• ACTION (undated; quoted in Charles Duke Yonge's 1851-52 English translation): Cicero, in prosecuting Verres, criticizes the violation of public monuments and religious statues, showing a commitment to legal and moral order. "How audaciously, how infamously, how shamelessly did you do so!" [10]

• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero, in his Treatise on Laws, emphasizes the importance of augurs and their authority in the Commonwealth, suggesting a belief in the necessity of religious and legal institutions for governance. "One of the greatest and most important offices in the Commonwealth is that of the Augurs, conjoined as it is with the highest authority." [11]

• ACTION (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero, in his introduction to the Third Book of his Commonwealth, acknowledges the importance of political justice and the need to counter sophistries that justify injustice in governance. "Cicero here enters on the grand question of Political Justice, and endeavours to evince throughout the absolute verity of that inestimable proverb—'Honesty is the best policy'..." [1]

2. HOW IT APPLIES (reasoning; inference is marked)

1. Cicero defines a commonwealth as a political association formed by the natural human spirit of sociality, bound by justice and utility. "A commonwealth is a constitution of the entire people." [2] (quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation)

2. He emphasizes that a commonwealth is not merely any association of individuals but a structured community with a shared sense of rights and mutual benefits. "The people, however, is not every association of men, however congregated, but the association of the entire number, bound together by the compact of justice, and the communication of utility." [2] (quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation)

3. Cicero argues that the best form of government is a mixed government combining elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, which he believes is more stable and just. "I described as preferable to either of them that mixed government which shall be composed of a proper amalgamation of these simple ingredients." [5] (quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation)

4. He also believes that the Roman Commonwealth is based on the combination of virtuous individuals and established customs, which he sees as essential for its strength and longevity. "Rome's Commonwealth in men and manners stands." [7] (quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation)

5. Cicero asserts that a commonwealth cannot exist under tyranny or the power of a faction, as there is no universal bond of right or social consent. (key quote above) [6] (quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation)

3. HIS TAKE

Record coverage: DIRECT

The record is silent on the modern application of the term "commonwealth" beyond its classical and political context.

Extrapolation: Cicero would likely define a commonwealth as a political entity characterized by the welfare of the entire people, structured by justice and utility, and governed by a combination of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. He would emphasize the importance of virtuous leadership and established customs in maintaining the stability and longevity of such a state.

Competing readings: The record supports the view that Cicero saw a commonwealth as a structured community governed by justice and wisdom, but it also shows a pragmatic approach to political decisions when necessary for the republic's needs.

Confidence: High, as the record directly addresses the definition and characteristics of a commonwealth, and the supporting passages are consistent in their definitions and principles.