What is the best form of government?

Translation: quotations from Cicero are quoted in C. D. Yonge's 1853 English translation; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation, not his original words.

1. WHAT HE SAID (the record)

Record ledger

• BELIEF (undated; quoted in C. D. Yonge's 1853 English translation): Cicero's passage shows that Aristotle believed in a republic as the best form of government, based on the principle of equality, though it can degenerate into democracy. He also considered monarchy and aristocracy as forms of government based on inequality, which can degenerate into tyranny and oligarchy. "He defines three kinds of constitutions, each of them having a corresponding perversion:—a republic, arising from the principle of equality; this at times degenerates into democracy; monarchy, and aristocracy, which arise from principles of inequality..." [1]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the best form of government is one that is swayed with justice and wisdom, regardless of whether it is subordinated to a king, an aristocracy, or a democracy. He argues that the commonwealth is the common welfare when governed justly, and that it is corrupted or annihilated when rulers or the people become unjust. [2]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the best form of government is a mixed government composed of a proper amalgamation of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy. He argues that none of these forms, taken separately, is absolutely good, and that a mixed government is preferable to any of them. (key quote above) [3]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the best form of government is one that resembles the constitutional government described in his Six Books, which includes necessary magistrates and laws accommodating a free people. He argues that magistrates are essential to prevent anarchy and that citizens should both obey and honor their rulers. "For ourselves, then, as we propose laws for a free people, such as we approved in that best kind of Commonwealth, concerning which we wrote our Six Books, we shall now endeavour to accommodate our laws to that constitutional government we there set forth and illustrated." [4]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero discusses the value of democracy, stating that advocates of democracy argue that only a constitution where the people exercise sovereign power can be the abode of liberty. He suggests that true liberty requires equality, which he claims cannot exist in a monarchy or in constitutions where the people are only nominally free. He contrasts this with democratic constitutions, like those of the Rhodians and Athenians, where every citizen may have freedom. "The advocates of democracy tell us, that no other constitution than that in which the people exercise sovereign power, can be the abode of liberty, which is certainly a most desirable blessing." [5]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the mixed form of government is preferable because it presents little danger of revolution. He argues that absolute monarchy has an inherent tendency to revolution, especially when a king becomes unjust, and that if the people act against a just king or legitimate nobles, it can lead to terrible consequences. (key quote above) [6]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero, through the character Scipio, believes that an aristocratic government consisting of many virtuous men is a most fortunate circumstance for any state, and he prefers royalty to democracy. He argues that wisdom governing the state should reside in one monarch as well as in many nobles, and he implies that a just king, like Romulus or Numa, is preferable to a shameless despot. (key quote above) [7]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that royalty, as a form of government, is preferable to all other simple constitutions, provided it maintains its appropriate character of perpetual power and justice, which regulates the safety, equality, and tranquillity of the whole people. He argues that a monarchy can be excellent if it ensures the people's well-being through justice and experience. "In itself, however, royalty is not only not a reprehensible form of government, but I should conceive far preferable to all other simple constitutions, if I approved of any simple constitution whatever." [8]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero believes that the best form of government is a mixed kind, where each class acts as a guard upon the others, forming a compact between the great folk and the little folk. This is based on his discussion of Roman governance and the necessity of balancing power. "And when every man is a guard upon his neighbour, and every class is a guard upon every other class, then because each demands the aid of the rest, a kind of compact is formed between the great folk and the little folk, from whence arises that mixed kind of government which Scipio has been commending." [9]
• BELIEF (undated; quoted in Francis Foster Barham's 1841 English translation): Cicero's Treatise on the Laws is described as giving a body of laws conformable to his own plan and idea of a well-ordered state, with some variation from the old Roman constitution to give a stronger turn toward the aristocratic side. This suggests that Cicero believed in an aristocratic form of government as the best form. "These laws are generally taken from the old constitution or custom of Rome, with some little variation and temperament, contrived to obviate the disorders to which that commonwealth was liable, and to give a stronger turn toward the aristocratic side." [10]

What cuts against it

• OTHERS' VIEW (undated; quoted in C. D. Yonge's 1853 English translation): The passage mentions Plato's view that the best form of government requires the best morals and that he was right in banishing poets from his commonwealth, which implies his belief in a government based on moral and philosophical principles. "Plato therefore was right in banishing them from his commonwealth, where he required the best morals, and the best form of government." [11]

2. HOW IT APPLIES (reasoning; inference is marked)

1. Cicero argues that none of the pure forms of government—monarchy, aristocracy, or democracy—is absolutely good when taken separately.

2. He prefers a mixed government composed of a proper amalgamation of these forms, as it is more stable and less prone to revolution.

3. Cicero believes that the best form of government is one that is swayed with justice and wisdom, regardless of whether it is subordinated to a king, an aristocracy, or a democracy.

4. He acknowledges the value of democracy, particularly in terms of liberty, but suggests that true liberty requires equality, which is difficult to achieve in a monarchy or in constitutions where the people are only nominally free.

5. Cicero's view is influenced by the idea that a mixed government, where each class acts as a guard upon the others, is the most balanced and effective form of governance. (Inference)

3. HIS TAKE

Record coverage: PARTIAL

The record is silent on the specific modern context of the question, but Cicero's principles suggest a preference for a mixed government that incorporates elements of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy.

Extrapolation: Cicero would likely advocate for a mixed government that balances the strengths of monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy to ensure stability and justice. He would argue that such a government is preferable to any pure form, as it is more resilient to the inherent flaws and tendencies toward corruption found in each pure form.

Competing readings: One reading is that Cicero prefers a mixed government for its stability and balance. Another reading is that he may lean towards monarchy or aristocracy under certain conditions, particularly if they are governed by just and wise rulers. The record itself supports the mixed government reading, as it is repeatedly emphasized in his writings.

Confidence: Moderate, as the record provides a clear preference for a mixed government, but the exact application to modern contexts is not directly addressed.